Weekend Stories
I enjoy going exploring on weekends (mostly). Here is a collection of stories and photos I gather along the way. All posts are CC BY-NC-SA licensed unless otherwise stated. Feel free to share, remix, and adapt the content as long as you give appropriate credit and distribute your contributions under the same license.
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Three vehicles, three schools: How Buddhist teachings evolved and spread
Buddhism, as it spread across Asia, gave rise to both diverse philosophical interpretations and distinct institutional forms. To understand this development, it is helpful to distinguish between two perspectives. The first is the doctrinal metaphor of the ‘vehicles’ (yāna), a way of describing different approaches or levels of teaching aimed at different capacities of practitioners. This concept was especially developed within Mahāyāna literature to frame earlier and concurrent paths as the small (hīnayāna), great (mahāyāna), and ultimately one (ekayāna) vehicle. The second perspective focuses on the historical schools of Buddhism — Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna — each of which developed in specific regions, languages, and cultural contexts. These schools are often associated with different texts, practices, and institutions, but they do not always align neatly with the doctrinal metaphor of the three vehicles. Understanding both frameworks helps us see how Buddhism adapted and evolved across time without reducing its complexity to a single narrative.
Written sources of Buddhism
The Buddhist textual tradition is among the richest in world religions, encompassing a wide range of genres, languages, and historical contexts. Buddhist teachings were originally transmitted orally for several centuries, preserved through rigorous memorization and recitation by monastic communities. Only later, in response to political and environmental threats to this oral tradition, were they written down. This transition from oral to written form marks a crucial moment in Buddhist history, not only safeguarding the teachings but also shaping their interpretation and institutional role. The resulting body of texts — spanning languages, regions, and centuries — offers a unique record of how Buddhist ideas were preserved, transformed, and systematized across time and cultures.
The role of lay practitioners in Buddhism
While monastics have historically been the most visible custodians of Buddhism, the tradition has never been confined to monks and nuns alone. Lay practitioners—householders, workers, rulers, and ordinary citizens—have played a vital role in the transmission, adaptation, and lived expression of Buddhist teachings. Their relationship with the monastic Sangha is symbiotic and dynamic, rooted in both doctrinal prescriptions and socio-cultural realities. In this post, we examine the historical, doctrinal, and practical roles of lay Buddhists, as well as how their position has evolved across different regions and schools of thought.
The Three Jewels of Buddhism: Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha
In the doctrinal and lived structure of Buddhism, the Three Jewels, also known as the Triple Gem or Triratna, represent the foundational elements to which all adherents turn for guidance and refuge. These three elements are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. While they are often referred to in a ritualized formula, their significance extends far beyond mere recitation or symbolism. Each jewel embodies a distinct aspect of the Buddhist framework: the exemplar, the teaching, and the community. An objective examination of these three pillars provides insight into how Buddhism has functioned as a living tradition across centuries and cultures. This post aims to explicate the conceptual framework of the Three Jewels, with particular attention to the Sangha and its structural and social functions.
Upaya: The skilful means of teaching and practice
In Buddhist discourse, the concept of upaya (Sanskrit for ‘means’ or ‘method’) refers to the idea that teachings and practices may be adapted in form and expression in order to suit the needs, capacities, and circumstances of different individuals. While commonly translated as ‘skilful means’ or ‘expedient means’, the term encompasses a broad and nuanced field of pedagogical and soteriological strategies. These strategies aim not at the promotion of dogmatic correctness but rather at the effective guidance of practitioners toward awakening (bodhi), however defined within a given school of thought. Rather than representing a fixed doctrine, upaya expresses a dynamic and pragmatic view of teaching, where flexibility and contextualization are not only allowed but often necessary. In this post, we will take a closer look at the concept of upaya, its historical development, and its implications for Buddhist thought and practice.
Upekkhā: The role of equanimity in Buddhism
Upekkhā, commonly translated as ‘equanimity’, is one of the core concepts in Buddhist thought and practice. It occupies a unique position among the so-called ‘Four Brahmavihāras’ or ‘Divine Abidings’, which are central ethical dispositions in Buddhist teachings. These are mettā (loving-kindness), karuṇā (compassion), muditā (empathetic joy), and upekkhā (equanimity). While the first three emphasize affective engagement with others, upekkhā introduces a balancing element, often described as serene detachment or impartiality. However, to understand upekkhā purely as emotional neutrality would be a mischaracterization. It is a nuanced concept, deeply interwoven with Buddhist philosophical anthropology, ethics, and soteriology.
Sīla – Buddhist ethics: The path of moral cultivation
Buddhist ethics can be understood as a comprehensive framework for moral, psychological, and existential development. Unlike many Western ethical systems, which are often based on divine commandments, social contracts, or utility calculations, Buddhist ethics is deeply rooted in the interdependent concepts of karma, intentionality (cetanā), wisdom (prajñā), and compassion (karuṇā). It emphasizes the gradual cultivation of character through sustained practice, the refinement of mental dispositions, and the experiential realization of impermanence (anicca), non-self (anattā), and dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda). Ethical conduct is not merely a matter of conforming to rules but arises naturally from the transformation of perception and volition. It serves as a foundation for calming the mind, minimizing suffering, dissolving the boundary between self and other, and progressing toward liberation from cyclic existence (saṃsāra). In this post, we explore the foundations of Buddhist ethics, its expression through frameworks like the Five Precepts, the Brahmavihāras, and the Bodhisattva ideal, and its relevance as a model for ethical living in both ancient and contemporary contexts.
The eight vijnanas: The Buddhist psychoanalysis
Among the many philosophical and psychological systems developed within Buddhism, the Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism introduces one of the most elaborate models of consciousness. Central to this model is the concept of vijñāna, often translated as ‘consciousness’ or ‘cognitive awareness’. The Yogācāra framework identifies eight distinct forms of consciousness, each contributing to how beings perceive, interpret, and act within the world. This model serves both as a metaphysical explanation of the cognitive process and as a diagnostic system for identifying the roots of delusion (moha and suffering (dukkha). These eight vijñānas can be seen as the Buddhist counterpart to psychoanalysis, delineating layers of the mind and mechanisms of identity-formation, attachment, and transformation.
Karma and Samsara in Indian thought and Siddhartha’s revolutionary reinterpretation
Among the many contributions of Siddhartha Gautama to the Indian religious and philosophical landscape, his reconceptualization of karma and samsara stands out as one of the most radical. While these notions were already central to the spiritual worldview of his time, his reframing of them challenged deeply entrenched metaphysical assumptions and proposed a psychological and ethical framework that redefined what it means to be liberated. In this post, we explore the historical and doctrinal context of karma and samsara in Indian thought, and how Siddhartha’s reinterpretation transformed these concepts into a practical guide for understanding suffering and achieving liberation.
Sati: A historical and philosophical analysis of mindfulness in Buddhism
The concept of mindfulness has gained immense popularity in contemporary Western societies, often promoted as a secular practice for stress reduction, emotional regulation, and enhanced cognitive performance. While the modern notion of mindfulness is largely derived from Buddhist traditions, the term ‘mindfulness’ is a translation of the Pāli word sati, which occupies a more complex and multifaceted role within Buddhist thought and practice. In this post, we examine sati from a historical, philosophical, and doctrinal perspective, tracing its origins and development within Buddhist contexts, and critically analyze how it differs from or aligns with modern interpretations.