Hellenistic influence on Jewish theology: The case of the Septuagint and Philo of Alexandria

The encounter between Jewish theology and Hellenistic culture in the centuries following Alexander the Great’s conquests marked a transformative period in the history of Judaism. This era, known as the Hellenistic period, was characterized by the fusion of Greek philosophical ideas and Jewish religious traditions, leading to significant developments in Jewish thought. Two key manifestations of this synthesis are the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and the works of Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher. Both the Septuagint and Philo’s writings illustrate how Jewish theology adapted and responded to the intellectual and cultural milieu of the Greco-Roman world.

Vienna Genesis: The Temptation of Joseph, 1st half of the 6th century. Illuminated manuscript that was probably produced in Syria in the first half of the 6th century. It is one of the oldest well-preserved illustrated biblical codices. The text is a fragment of the Book of Genesis in the Greek Septuagint translation. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Historical context: Judaism in the Hellenistic world

The Hellenistic period began with Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Near East in the late 4th century BCE, which introduced Greek language, culture, and philosophy to the region. The Jewish diaspora, particularly in cities like Alexandria, found itself at the crossroads of Greek and Jewish traditions. This intersection created both opportunities for cultural exchange and challenges for maintaining distinct religious identities.

Map of the empire of Alexander the Great. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: CC BY-SA 3.0).

In this context, the Jewish community faced the dual task of preserving its heritage while making its beliefs intelligible and relevant to a broader, Greek-speaking audience. The Septuagint and the philosophical writings of Philo exemplify how Jewish theology engaged with Hellenistic culture to address these challenges.

The Septuagint: Translating theology into Hellenistic terms

The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced in Alexandria during the 3rd century BCE. According to tradition, seventy-two Jewish scholars undertook the translation under the patronage of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, giving the work its name (from the Latin septuaginta, meaning seventy). While the historical accuracy of this account is debated, the Septuagint remains a critical artifact of the Hellenistic period, reflecting both the linguistic realities of the Jewish diaspora and the theological adaptations necessitated by translation.

Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of uncial book from 1 Esdras in the Codex Vaticanus c. 325–350 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Cultural adaptation and linguistic challenges

The translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek was not merely a linguistic exercise but a theological undertaking. Many Hebrew concepts lacked direct Greek equivalents, requiring the translators to adapt terms and ideas in ways that aligned with Hellenistic intellectual frameworks. For instance, the Hebrew word hokhmah (wisdom) was rendered as sophia, a term with rich philosophical connotations in Greek thought, thus linking Jewish wisdom literature with the Greek tradition of philosophical inquiry.

Theological implications of the translation

The Septuagint’s translation choices often reflect an engagement with Greek philosophical ideas. For example, the translation of the Hebrew dabar (word) as logos in some contexts established a connection with the Greek philosophical concept of logos as the principle of reason or order in the universe. This linguistic bridge would later influence early Christian theology, particularly in the prologue to the Gospel of John, where Christ is identified as the incarnate logos.

The Septuagint also introduced interpretive nuances that shaped Jewish theology. In passages where the Hebrew text describes anthropomorphic depictions of God, the Septuagint often employs more abstract or philosophical language, reflecting a Hellenistic preference for a transcendent and ineffable deity. This shift highlights the translators’ efforts to align Jewish monotheism with the Greek philosophical ideal of a single, unchanging first cause.

Influence on diaspora Judaism and early Christianity

The Septuagint became the primary scripture for Greek-speaking Jews and later for early Christians. Its widespread use facilitated the dissemination of Jewish theology within the Hellenistic world and provided the textual foundation for much of the New Testament’s engagement with the Hebrew Bible. By making Jewish scripture accessible in Greek, the Septuagint played a pivotal role in shaping both Jewish and Christian theological discourses.

Philo of Alexandria: Philosophy as a lens for Jewish theology

Philo of Alexandria (circa 20 BCE–50 CE) represents the pinnacle of Hellenistic Jewish thought. Living in one of the most vibrant intellectual centers of the ancient world, Philo sought to harmonize the teachings of the Hebrew scriptures with Greek philosophy, particularly Platoism and Stoicism. His works provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how Jewish theology could be articulated within the conceptual categories of Hellenistic thought.

Imaginative illustration of Philo of Alexandria (circa 20 BCE–50 CE) made in 1584 by the French portrait artist André Thevet. Philo of Alexandria was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who sought to harmonize Greek philosophical traditions with the teachings of the Hebrew scriptures. His works exemplify the synthesis of Greek and Jewish thought during the Hellenistic period. Source: Wikimedia Commonsꜛ (license: public domain)

Philo’s use of allegory

Philo employed allegorical interpretation as a method for uncovering the deeper, philosophical meanings of the Hebrew scriptures. He viewed the literal text as a veil for universal truths, aligning the Torah with the principles of Greek philosophy. For example, in his interpretation of the creation account in Genesis, Philo emphasized the Platonic idea of a transcendent, ideal world that serves as the blueprint for the material universe. This allegorical approach allowed Philo to present Jewish theology as a sophisticated system of thought, comparable to the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle.

The logos as mediator

One of Philo’s most significant contributions to Jewish theology is his concept of the logos. Drawing on both Stoic and Platonic traditions, Philo described the logos as the divine reason that orders the cosmos and serves as the intermediary between the transcendent God and the material world. In works such as On the Creation and Who Is the Heir of Divine Things?, Philo identifies the logos with the wisdom and word of God, attributes that are also central to Jewish scripture.

Philo’s logos doctrine [bridged Jewish and Hellenistic thought](/weekend_stories/told/2025/2025-01-05-greek_and_jewish_philosophy/, providing a theological framework that resonated with Greek intellectuals while remaining rooted in Jewish tradition. This concept would later exert a profound influence on early Christian theology, particularly in the identification of Christ as the logos in the Gospel of John.

Ethics and virtue in Philo’s thought

Philo’s engagement with Hellenistic philosophy extended to ethics, where he synthesized Jewish teachings with Greek ideals of virtue and self-mastery. He portrayed the patriarchs of the Hebrew Bible as exemplars of philosophical virtue, interpreting their lives allegorically to illustrate principles of temperance, courage, and wisdom. This ethical synthesis reinforced the compatibility of Jewish and Greek moral frameworks, contributing to the broader appeal of Jewish theology in the Hellenistic world.

Conclusion

The Septuagint and the writings of Philo of Alexandria exemplify the profound impact of Hellenistic culture on Jewish theology in the centuries leading up to the Common Era. By engaging with Greek philosophy and translating Jewish theology into the intellectual framework of Hellenistic thought, these works facilitated the integration of Jewish tradition into a multicultural world, ensuring its adaptability and relevance.

Their influence extended beyond Judaism. Within Christianity, the conceptual tools provided by the Septuagint and Philo played a crucial role in articulating key theological doctrines, including the nature of Christ and the Trinity. This Hellenistic synthesis not only enriched Jewish and Christian traditions but also laid the intellectual groundwork for the dialogue between faith and reason in Western thought.

References and further reading

• Philo of Alexandria, The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged (Translated by C. D. Yonge), 1991, Hendrickson Publishers, ISBN: 978-1565638099
• Kugel, J. L., The Bible as It Was, 1997, Belknap Press, ISBN: 978-0674069404
• Winston, D., Philo of Alexandria: The Contemplative Life, Giants, and Selections, 1980, Paulist Press, ISBN: 978-0809123339
• Grabbe, L. L., Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian: The Persian and Greek Periods, 1992, Fortress Press, ISBN: 978-0800626204
• Collins, J. J., Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora, 1983, Crossroad Pub Co, ISBN: 978-0824504915