Prajñā: The wisdom of insight in Buddhism

Prajñā, often translated as “wisdom” or “insight”, is a core concept in Buddhist philosophy. It refers to the direct understanding of reality as it is (tathatā), free from delusion and misperception (avidyā). This form of understanding is not limited to intellectual knowledge but is characterized by experiential clarity, often associated with meditation and ethical behavior. Within Buddhist traditions, this form of wisdom is considered essential for achieving liberation from suffering (dukkha). In this post, we explore the nature of Prajñā and its aspects in different Buddhist traditions, its role in the Noble Eightfold Path, and its link to compassion (karuṇā).

The gods Indra and Brahma entreat the Buddha to deliver his first sermon, Pakistan, Gandhara, 1st c., schist. According to early Buddhist narratives, following his awakening, Siddhartha Gautama initially refrains from teaching, concerned that the depth of his insight (prajñā) may be difficult to grasp. However, heavenly beings — represented here by Indra and Brahmā — repeatedly entreat him to share his realization for the benefit of all sentient beings. This moment symbolically marks the transition from solitary insight to compassionate action (karuṇā), and the beginning of his role as teacher. Exhibited at the Humboldt Forum in Berlin, 2023.

The nature of Prajñā

Prajñā is typically contrasted with conventional knowledge (vijñāna), which involves sensory experience and conceptual thinking. While vijñāna categorizes and analyzes phenomena, Prajñā is described in Buddhist philosophical literature as a non-conceptual and intuitive form of understanding that penetrates the constructed nature of ordinary perception. It is considered a cognitive shift that dissolves dualistic distinctions and reveals the conditioned, impermanent, and insubstantial character of all phenomena — commonly expressed through the doctrines of anicca (impermanence), anatta (non-self), and dukkha (suffering).

Prajñā does not merely supplement rational knowledge but is thought to overturn habitual modes of perception and cognition. In Buddhist epistemology, it plays a role akin to direct seeing (yathābhūta-ñāṇadassana, “knowledge and vision of things as they are”).

This form of wisdom reflects what modern philosophers might call a process ontology: a view in which reality is not composed of static substances, but of impermanent, interrelated events. To develop Prajñā is to see not just that things are impermanent, but that they are nothing but impermanence — always arising, interacting, and fading in dependence upon conditions. There is no essence to be found behind this flux — only the flux itself, beautifully and compassionately interwoven.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, Prajñā is closely tied to the ideal of prajñāpāramitā (from Sanskrit prajñā, meaning “wisdom”, and pāramitā, meaning “perfection” or “going beyond”, often interpreted together as “perfection of wisdom” or “transcendent wisdom”). This concept is developed extensively in canonical texts such as the Heart Sūtra and the Diamond Sūtra.

A famous line from the Heart Sūtra states:

Form is emptiness; emptiness is form. Form is not other than emptiness, and emptiness is not other than form.

This phrase expresses the central Mahāyāna insight that the physical world and ultimate reality are not two separate things but one unified, interdependent flow. Prajñā, in this context, is the deep seeing into this non-dual nature of existence, which undermines all fixed views and attachments.

These works advance the doctrine of śūnyatā (emptiness), which holds that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence. In Theravāda Buddhism, Prajñā is cultivated primarily through the practice of vipassanā (insight meditation), which is intended to reveal the conditioned and impermanent nature of all experiences and mental constructs.

The development of Prajñā

According to traditional Buddhist teachings, wisdom develops progressively through study, reflection, and meditation. This development is often described in terms of the threefold training (tisikkhā): ethical conduct (sīla), meditative concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā), which also correspond to the three core groupings of the Noble Eightfold Path, as will be further discussed in the next section.

The Abhidhamma commentaries elaborate on this development by distinguishing three forms of paññā (wisdom):

1. Learned wisdom (suta-maya-paññā): Knowledge acquired from texts, teachings, or listening to others.
2. Reflective wisdom (cinta-maya-paññā): Wisdom that emerges through critical reasoning and analytical thought.
3. Cultivated wisdom (bhāvanā-maya-paññā): Direct experiential insight arising from meditative and spiritual development, particularly through higher states of concentration (dhyāna) and insight practices such as vipassanā. This is also the form emphasized by Buddhaghosa under the notion of Vipassanā Paññā.

In addition to these classifications, several pathways to the development of paññā are outlined in Buddhist commentarial literature. These include:

• Consulting or learning from a wise person
• Reflecting on and analyzing the Dhamma
• Training one’s mental faculties through meditation
• Strengthening mindfulness and attention
• Maintaining moral conduct
• Engaging in the Triple Refuge (Buddha, Dhamma, saṅgha)

While all limbs of the Eightfold Path are considered interdependent and of equal importance, it is noted in some traditions that the development of prajñā may occur even when other aspects are less developed, provided that a deep commitment to one domain is maintained. The path is thus presented not as a rigid sequence but as a flexible framework for transformative practice.

In Zen Buddhism, this idea is reflected in the emphasis on seated meditation (zazen) as a direct means of cultivating bhāvanā-maya-paññā, understood as the unity of form and emptiness, and the overcoming of subject-object duality.

Prajñā, the Noble Eightfold Path, and karuṇā

Prajñā is explicitly incorporated into the Noble Eightfold Path, which outlines the structure of Buddhist ethical and meditative practice. The path is divided into three core groupings — wisdom (prajñā), ethical conduct (sīla), and meditative concentration (samādhi) — which together form a comprehensive approach to spiritual development.

The two aspects of the path associated with the wisdom component are:

• Right View (Sammā-diṭṭhi): Comprehension of the Four Noble Truths and insight into the nature of reality.
• Right Intention (Sammā-saṅkappa): The cultivation of wholesome motivations such as renunciation, goodwill, and non-harming.

These two limbs provide the foundational framework for developing ethical behavior and mental discipline. Within Buddhist doctrine, they are considered crucial for orienting one’s understanding and actions toward liberation from suffering (dukkha).

Prajñā is not merely a product of ethical conduct (sīla) but is also seen as its prerequisite. The cultivation of Right View and Right Intention ensures that ethical behavior arises from insight rather than blind adherence to rules. Conversely, ethical behavior provides the clarity and stability needed for wisdom to arise. This reciprocal relationship highlights the Buddhist view that insight and morality are deeply interdependent: one informs and sustains the other.

Moreover, Buddhist traditions — particularly Mahāyāna — emphasize the close relationship between Prajñā and karuṇā (compassion). In this view, wisdom devoid of compassion risks becoming detached or nihilistic, while compassion without insight may lack discernment. True awakening requires their union: Prajñā sees the emptiness (śūnyatā) of all phenomena, recognizing that all things lack inherent, unchanging essence. This understanding reveals that suffering (dukkha) arises from clinging to what is ultimately insubstantial or illusory.

Importantly, the experiential realization of emptiness includes insight into the self’s lack of inherent separateness from others. When the illusion of an independent self dissolves, the boundary between “self” and “other” becomes fluid or even disappears. As a result, the suffering of others is no longer perceived as external or unrelated — it is felt as intimately as one’s own. This collapse of subject-object dualism intensifies the ethical impulse: compassion arises not from moral obligation but from direct, empathetic resonance with all sentient beings.

The realization of śūnyatā does not lead to detachment or apathy; rather, it is balanced by karuṇā (compassion), which responds to the existential and emotional weight of that illusion in lived experience. While Prajñā deconstructs the illusion, karuṇā engages with the beings still caught in it. Their integration ensures that wisdom does not become abstract or detached, and that compassion is guided by clear understanding. Recognizing this interdependence between prajñā and karuṇā — that genuine wisdom necessarily entails compassionate responsiveness, and vice versa — is itself an expression of prajñā. In Buddhist thought, to fully comprehend the role and necessity of compassion within awakened awareness is already a sign of deep insight. This interdependence forms a foundational ethic in Mahāyāna Buddhism, particularly in the Bodhisattva ideal, where one aspires to liberate others through both clarity of vision and acts of compassion. Together, they form the foundation of the Bodhisattva ideal, in which clarity of perception and compassionate action are inseparably linked.

The role of Prajñā in different Buddhist traditions

Buddhist traditions have developed differing emphases and interpretations of Prajñā, depending on their historical and doctrinal contexts.

Theravāda perspective

In Theravāda Buddhism, Prajñā is closely connected to the practice of vipassanā (insight) meditation. The 5th-century text Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), composed by the commentator Buddhaghosa, presents a detailed manual for meditative development. It describes a systematic path involving the cultivation of deep concentration (samādhi) and the successive observation of bodily and mental phenomena through the lens of the three marks of existence: impermanence (anicca), non-self (anattā), and suffering (dukkha).

This aligns with verses 277–279 of the Dhammapada, which state:

“All conditioned things are impermanent” — when one sees this with wisdom, one turns away from suffering. “All conditioned things are suffering” — when one sees this with wisdom, one turns away from suffering. “All things are not-self” — when one sees this with wisdom, one turns away from suffering.

These verses encapsulate the essence of prajñā in the Theravāda tradition: the wisdom that comes from seeing reality as it is, which naturally leads to detachment and liberation.

Within this framework, Prajñā is understood as the culmination of insight that arises from increasingly refined and stable states of awareness. Buddhaghosa classifies this as bhāvanā-maya-paññā — wisdom developed through meditative cultivation. In Visuddhimagga XVIII, he describes how the meditator progresses through stages of insight, beginning with the knowledge of rise and fall, and culminating in equanimity and conformity knowledge. He writes that the practitioner sees phenomena as “like a lump of foam, a mirage, a bubble, a plantain trunk”, — all lacking substance and permanence. This sustained insight leads to dispassion and ultimately to nibbāna, the unconditioned.

Mahāyāna perspective

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, Prajñā is considered the highest of the Six Perfections (pāramitās), a set of virtues that guide the Bodhisattva path. It is viewed not merely as intellectual clarity but as a transformative realization that supports the Bodhisattva’s commitment to aiding all sentient beings. Texts such as the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras associate Prajñā with the realization of śūnyatā (emptiness), which asserts that all phenomena are empty of inherent or independent existence. This doctrine serves to challenge the reification of conceptual categories and the mistaken perception of enduring essences.

In this framework, wisdom does not exist in isolation but is integrated with compassion and method. The cultivation of Prajñā is seen as essential for navigating the subtle attachments that can persist even in advanced stages of spiritual development. Symbolically, this form of wisdom is personified in the figure of Mañjuśrī, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, who wields a sword to cut through ignorance and conceptual delusion. As such, Prajñā in the Mahāyāna context is both an epistemological insight and a soteriological tool — a liberating force aimed at transcending dualistic thinking and actualizing non-dual awareness.

Vajrayāna perspective

Vajrayāna Buddhism integrates Prajñā into esoteric practices that emphasize a synthesis of wisdom (prajñā) and method (upaya), with the two viewed as inseparable components of the path to enlightenment. This tradition incorporates advanced ritual and meditative techniques such as deity visualization, mantra recitation, mudras, and tantric initiations. These methods are intended to transform ordinary perception and bring about a rapid and embodied realization of emptiness (śūnyatā), often within the framework of sacred symbolism and subtle body practices.

Prajñā in the Vajrayāna context is not approached in isolation but is dynamically cultivated in tandem with compassionate activity and ritual efficacy. The union of wisdom and method symbolizes the non-duality of reality itself — often represented by the pairing of male (wisdom) and female (method) deities in tantric iconography. Insight here is cultivated not only through contemplative absorption but also through ritual enactment designed to directly affect the practitioner’s perception and identity structure. As such, Prajñā is regarded as indispensable to the realization of enlightenment, particularly when embodied in this integrative and experientially immediate manner.

The significance of Prajñā in daily life

In Buddhist thought, Prajñā is not confined to the context of formal meditation or monastic life but is considered applicable to everyday activities and decision-making. It is described as a quality of discernment that enables individuals to navigate their daily lives with clarity, composure, and ethical sensitivity. This form of practical wisdom involves recognizing the impermanent (anicca) and interdependent (paṭicca-samuppāda) nature of personal and social situations, allowing for more adaptive and compassionate responses.

Right View and Right Intention — components of the Eightfold Path — are frequently cited as instrumental in this process. They are interpreted as means to reduce attachment, aversion, and delusion in interpersonal interactions, thereby contributing to more harmonious and ethically grounded relationships. In this way, Prajñā serves not only as a path to liberation but also as a framework for skillful and conscientious living.

Conclusion

Prajñā stands as a central concept in Buddhist philosophy, defined as a transformative insight into the true nature of reality (tathatā) — one that leads to liberation from suffering (dukkha). It is cultivated through a combined process of study, reflection, and meditative practice, and is elaborated differently across Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna traditions. Despite these variations, Prajñā consistently functions as a key instrument in challenging habitual perception and overcoming conceptual illusions such as permanence, selfhood, and duality.

From a comparative perspective, Buddhist approaches to wisdom differ notably from many strands of Western thought, where rational inquiry and discursive reasoning often serve as the primary paths to knowledge. In contrast, Prajñā emphasizes intuitive, experiential, and embodied knowing that transcends conceptualization. While Western philosophy has developed sophisticated epistemologies, it has historically undervalued meditative experience as a valid epistemic method. Buddhism, by contrast, elevates direct experiential insight — particularly through practices like vipassanā or zazen — to a central position in the search for truth.

Furthermore, Buddhist philosophy does not treat wisdom as isolated from ethical and mental discipline. Prajñā is intimately linked with the other aspects of the Eightfold Path and emerges most powerfully within a framework of ethical conduct and concentrated awareness. This integration of epistemology, ethics, and mental training represents a holistic vision of human development, where insight is not only a matter of knowledge but also of transformation.

One might argue that the Buddhist ideal of non-conceptual wisdom is difficult to access or evaluate outside of committed practice. It also presumes certain metaphysical claims — such as the absence of inherent selfhood — that are not universally accepted. Nevertheless, the Buddhist model offers a compelling counterpoint to knowledge systems rooted solely in rationalism or empirical observation. Its emphasis on direct, transformative insight offers a unique contribution to global philosophical discourse, particularly in its ability to unite knowledge with personal and existential transformation.

References and further reading

• Oliver Freiberger, Christoph Kleine, Buddhismus - Handbuch und kritische Einführung, 2011, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, ISBN: 9783525500040
• Rupert Gethin, The Foundations Of Buddhism, 1998, Oxford University Press, ISBN: 9780192892232
• Oliver Bottini, Das grosse O.W. Barth-Buch des Buddhismus, 2004, Ebner & Spiegel GmbH, ISBN: 9783502611264
• Richard Francis Gombrich, How Buddhism began – The conditioned genesis of the early teachings, 2006, Taylor & Francis, ISBN: 9780415371230
• Sebastian Gäb, Die Philosophie des Buddha - Eine Einführung, 2024, UTB, ISBN: 9783825262013
• Erich Frauwallner, Die Philosophie des Buddhismus, 2009, De Gruyter Akademie Forschung, ISBN: 978-3050045313
• Mark Siderits, Buddhism As Philosophy - An Introduction, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN: 9780754653691
• Richard Francis Gombrich, What the Buddha thought, 2009, Equinox Publishing (UK), ISBN: 9781845536121
• Walpola Rāhula, What the Buddha taught, 1974, Grove Press, ISBN: 9780802130310
• Jr. Buswell, Robert E., Jr. Lopez, Donald S., Juhn Ahn, J. Wayne Bass, William Chu, The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism, 2014, Princeton University Press, ISBN: 978-0-691-15786-3
• Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Prajna, Zen und die Höchste Weisheit, Die Verwirklichung der „transzendenten Weisheit“ im Buddhismus und im Zen, 1. Januar 1990, O. W. Barth, ISBN-10: 3502645981